BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES -XII HISTORY

                                     BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES                        (THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION)

·         Indus valley civilization is also known as Harappan civilization.

·         It started flourishing along River Indus (now in Pakistan) at around 2600 B.C.

·         Harappan civilization was the largest Bronze age civilization in the world

·         Harappa was the first site of this civilization discovered by archaeologists

·         It was an urban civilization. Its writing is not deciphered

·         After 1900 B.C., most of the sites were abandoned due to some reasons

·         By 1900 B.C. major part of the civilization ended

Period of Harappan Civilization

·         The civilization is dated between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE

·         The period of the civilization is broadly divided in to three:-

      1.The Early Harappan culture (Before 2600 BCE)

      2. The Mature Harappan culture (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE)

     3. The Late Harappan culture (After 1900)

Some important sites of Harappan civilization

1.  Kalibangan,(Rajasthan)
2. Lothal,(Gujarat)
3. Rakhi Garhi(Haryana)
4. ,Dholavira,(Gujarat)
5. Rupar,(Punjab)
6. Harappa(pakistan)
7. ,Chanhudaro,(Pakistan)
8. Sutakagen Dor,(Pakistan)
9. Mohenjodaro,(Pakistan)
10. Amri,(Pakn)ista
11. Balakot,(Pakistan)
12. Kot Diji(Pakistan)
13. ,Rangpur,(Gujarat)
14. Nageshwar(Pakistan)

Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

·         1875-Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal

·         1924-John Marshall announced the discovery of Harappan civilization

·         1925-Excavation began at Mohenjodaro

·         1944-R E M Wheeler became the Director General of ASI

·         1946- R E M Wheeler excavates at Harappa

·         1955-S.R.Rao begins excavation at Lothal

·         1960-B.B Lal&B.K Thaper begins excavations at Kalibangan

·         1974-M.R.Mughal begins explorations in Bahawalpur

·         1990-R.S Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira.

Features of early Harappan sites

•      There were several archaeological cultures in the region prior to the Mature Harappan.  
•       These cultures were associated with distinctive pottery, evidence of agriculture,                           pastoralism and some crafts.
•     The settlements were small in size and had no large buildings

Subsistence strategies of the people

•    Subsistence strategies of the people included hunting and gathering, cultivation,                   pastoralism, and distribution.
•      People relied on many plants and animals, fishing and agriculture for their food
•        There are evidences of bones of animals which prove that people consumed meat.      Teracotta models of oxen, plough etc.show that people relied on agriculture too 

FOOD OF HARAPPAN PEOPLE

·    The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products, including fish.

PLANTS-

·         Archaeologists found grain such as wheat, barley, lentils, chickpea and sesame at the Harappan sites.

·         In Gujarat, Millets have been found. Rice was found rarely.

ANIMALS-

·         Bones of cattle, fish, fowl, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig, boar, deer, and gharial are found at the sites. Studies indicate that these animals were either domesticated or hunted by the Harappans

Agricultural technologies of Harappans

·         Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans.
·         The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains.
·         It is very difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices carried out by the Harappans.
·         Terracotta sculptors of the bull and their representation on the seals indicate that bull was known to them.
·           From this, the archaeologists assume that the oxen were used for ploughing.
·         Moreover, the Archaeologists have also found terracotta models of the plough at sites in Cholistan and at Banwali (Haryana).
·         Evidence of a ploughed field, associated with early Harappan levels have also found at Kalibangan(Rajasthan)
·         The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together.
·         Most of theHarappan sites were located in semi-arid regions.So,to enhance agricultural produce they needed facilities of irrigation.
·         Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan.
·         It is also likely that water was drawn from wells was used for irrigation.
·         Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.
·         Processing of food required grinding equipment as well as vessels for mixing, blending and cooking. These equipment were made of stone, metal and terracotta

Architectural features of HARAPPAN CITIES(Town Planning)

·         The most spectacular part of Harappan structure is the large scale town layout.

·         The city of Mohenjodaro was divided into two halves i.e.

          The Citadel and

           The lower city

    Citadel-

 It was built on mud brick platforms. It was walled and separated from the Lower Town.

·         The citadel was probably used for special public purpose

  The Lower Town 

• It was also  walled. Several buildings were made on the platform that served as foundation.
• The Lower Town of Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings.

·         Labour was mobilized at a very large scale.

·           The settlement was first planned and then implemented.

·         Bricks used in the buildings were uniform in size.

ROAD AND STREETS

·         The roads and streets in the lower town were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.

·         The streets and drains were first laid out and then houses were built on the same pattern.

Houses  

·         Most of these were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.

·         Different activities like cooking, weaving etc. were carried out in the courtyard particularly during the hot and dry seasons.

·         There were no windows along the walls on the ground floor. So privacy could be maintained.

·         The main entrance did not provide view of courtyard and interior. Every house had bathroom paved with bricks which was connected through the wall to the street drains.

·           In some houses remains of staircases to reach second storey or roof have been found.

·         Many houses had wells which were reachable from outside for the use of outsiders. It is estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

Drainage System of the Harappans

·         One of the striking features of Harappan cities was the well planned drainage system.

·           Every house was connected to the street drains.

·         The drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum.

·         They were covered with big bricks which could be lifted easily to clean the drains.

·         For sewage from the houses, pits were provided at either side of the street.

·         Very long drainage channels were provided at intervals with sumps for cleaning.

·         In smaller settlements such as Lothal, the houses were built of mud bricks and drains were made of burnt bricks.

·         Little heaps of materials mostly sand have frequently been found alongside the drains.

·         This shows that the drains were cleaned at regular intervals.

The Great Bath-of Mohenjodaro

·         On citadel, some special buildings were built like 'The great bath of Mohenjodaro'.

·         Such buildings were used on some religious occasions or on public gatherings

·         The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank surrounded by corridors on all four sides.

·         There were two flights of steps on north and south leading into the tank.

·         The tank was made watertight by laying bricks on the edge and using mortar and gypsum.

·           Rooms were made on three sides of the tank, with one room having a large well.

·         The water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.

·         Across the lane there was a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four at each side of a corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.

Find out social differences

1.  Studying Burials

•     Strategies to analyze social and economic differences amongst people living within a particular culture include study of burials.
•       At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits.
•         Some of the pits were lined by bricks.
•       Some of the burials contained ornaments, pottery etc, may be a belief that these things can be used after life.
•      In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors.
•       Jwelleries were found in both men and women burials which mean that both men and women used ornaments.
•        But in general, Harappans never believed in burying precious things with the dead.

2.              Studying Artefacts

•         Studying artefacts is another strategy to find out social differences.
•        Artefacts are divided into utilitarian and luxuries.
•         Utilitarian artefacts include objects made of stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers etc. and are usually found distributed throughout settlements.
•       Luxury artefacts are rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa. For Example, little pots of faience were used as perfume bottles.

Finding out about craft production

Raw materials required for craft production

·         The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: 

Stones 

-like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour) jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; 

Metals 

-like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.

Methods of making craft by the Harappans

·         Sometimes beads were made of two or more stones by cementing together, while some of stone with gold caps.

·         They were made in different shapes such as cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.

·         Some were decorated by painting and some had designs etched on them.

·         They made bangles, ladles out of shells.

·         Special tools were used for craft work.

·         Specialized drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.

·         Nageshwar and Balakot were specialized centres for making shell objects.

·         Chanhudaro was the centre of crafts production. It was specialist in bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.

Identifying centres of production

  THE centers of production were identified by the archaeologists?

•  Evidences of tools, 
• Raw materials, 
• Unfinished objects, 
• Rejects OR waste materials, 

Strategies for procuring materials for craft production

·         The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.

·         Two methods of procuring materials for craft production

       1. They established settlements in Nageshwar, Balakot and Shortughai.

       2. They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold).

•    Nageshwar and Balakot were areas for shell.
•        Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan, was the best source of lapis-lazuli, 
•  Lothal which was near sources of carnelian, 
• Steatite from south Rajasthan and 
• north Gujarat and metal from Rajasthan.
•  Expeditions to the khetri region and south India established communication with local communities.

Contact with distant lands (Trade relation )

·         Archaeological finds suggest that the Harappans maintained long distance trade.

·         The main source of long distance contacts includes seals, weights, dice and beads.

·         Harappans probably had trade contacts with the Oman peninsula.

·         Chemical analyses have shown that both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, which suggests a common origin.

·         There are similarities between certain other types of objects found at this site.

·         A Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found in Oman.

·         Mesopotamian texts refer to contact with regions named 

-Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), 

-Magan and Meluhaha, possibly the Harappan.

Seals and Sealings

•        Seals and Sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication.
•      When a bag of goods was sent from one place to another, its mouth was tied with a rope.
•          On the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression.
•           If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with.
•         The sealing established the identity of the sender.

Characteristics of Seals and Script

·         Harappan seals usually have a line of writing.

·         Seal had the name and title of the owner.

·         The seal had a motif (generally an animal) which conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.

·         Seals were basically used to convey the identity of the sender and to facilitate long distance communication.

·         The Harappan inscriptions are short.

·         The script was not alphabetical and written right to left.

·         Many signs were used and they are around 375-400 in numbers.

·         The script still remains undeciphered to date.

Weights

·         Exchangers were regulated by a precise system of weights usually made of a stone called chert (a kind of stone, generally cubical with no markings).

·         Lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2,4,8,16,32 etc.), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system

Ancient Authority

• Different arguments put forwarded by the archaeologists over the central authority of Harappa
•          There are three major views about the existence of a central authority in the Harappan society.
•        1. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that there were no rulers in the Harappan society and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
•          2. Others are of the opinion that there was no single ruler but several rulers.Monenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa had separate and so on.
•          3. Some others suggest that there was a single state. This theory was based on the similarity of artefacts, planned settlements etc.
•       The last opinion considers being more plausible as it is doubtful that such complex decisions were made and implemented collectively by entire communities.

The End of the Civilization

• The Evidences that reflected the disappearance of Harappan civilization by 1800 BCE
•          By 1800BCE most of the mature Harappan sites were abandoned.
•          The expansion of population and its migration took place towards Gujarat, Haryana, Western U.P etc.
•        After 1900B.C.sites which existed marked the transformation of material culture i.e. disappearance of distinctive artefacts of civilization like weights, seals, distant trade, etc. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also disappeared.
•          House construction techniques deteriorated and large public structures were no longer produced.
•        This indicates a rural way of life named late Harappa

Several  reasons for the decline of Harappan civilization

v  The reasons responsible for the end of the civilization is still unknown. But probable reasons are;

v  Climatic Change

v  Deforestation

v  Excessive floods

v  Over use of the landscape

v  The shifting and or drying up of rivers

v  Invasion most probably by the Aryans

DISCOVERING THE HARAPPAN CIVILZATION -CUNNINGHAM AND HIS CONFUSIONS

·         Cunningham was the first Director General of ASI (Archaeological Survey of India).

·         He was known as the father of Indian archaeology.

·         He began archaeological excavations in the mid 19^th century.

·         His main interest was in the archaeology of early history from 6^th century BCE-4^th century CE, and later periods.

·         He used the accounts left by Chinese pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the 4^th and 7^th centuries CE.

·         He also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys.

·           Site like Harappa did not fit well in his area of investigation.

·         Although Harappan artefacts were found during the 19^th century and some of these reached Cunningham.

·         But he did not realize how old these were as they were not part of the itinerary of Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.

·         An English man gave a Harappan seal to Cunningham.

·         But he was unable to place it in the time frame with which he was familiar. He thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.

·           So, it is assumed that he missed the significance of Harappa

Different methods adopted by Marshall and Wheeler in reconstructing Harappan civilization

·         Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal Das Banerji found similar seals at Harappa and Mohenjodaro respectively.

·         Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, Director General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new civilization in the Indus valley to the world.

·         Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring stratigraphy of the site.

·         This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers.

·         As a result, valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.

·         R.E.M Wheeler rectified this problem. He recognized that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.

Problems faced by archaeologists in the interpretation of religious practices of Harappa

·         Harappan script is not helpful in understanding the Harappan civilization. The script remains undeciphered till date.

·         Material remains help the archaeologists to reconstruct Harappan life.

·         Organic material such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decomposed while stone, burnt clay, metal etc.survive.Materials such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and house hold objects are available.

·         Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists then classify their finds.

·         The second, and most complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artifact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.

·         An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its resemblance with present- day things-beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples.

·         Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which it was found. Whether it was found in a house, in drain, grave or in kiln.

·         The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in attempts to reconstruct religious practices.

·         Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.

·         Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions provide parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the known to the unknown, that is, from the present to the past.

Archaeologist’s attempts to reconstruct the religious practices of Harappan people

• Ø  The discovery of pots, querns, beads etc in the Harappan sites and their graves provide enormous information
• Ø  Traces of cotton and dresses depicted on seals and sculptures, give us an idea about the dressing style of the Harappan people
• Ø  The terracotta figurines of women indicate the worship of mother goddess.
• Ø  Plant motifs seem to suggest the practice of nature worship.
• Ø  The conical stones indicate linga worship
• Ø  In Some seals a figure shown seated cross legged in a ‘yogic’ posture, sometimes surrounded by animals has been regarded as a depiction of proto-Siva that is an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
• Ø  Some animals such as the unicorn depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
• The two important structures that have been found by archaeologists are: The fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal and The Great Bath at Monhenjodaro, something meant for ritual use.

Key words (Refer Text Book Instructions regarding contents)

Hoards: Hoards are objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots.

Stratigraphy: The study of layers.

Linga: A linga is a polished stone that is worshipped as a symbol of Shiva.

Shamans: Shamans are men and women who claim magical and healing powers, as well as an ability to communicate with the other world.

Saddle querns: Saddle querns were the only means of grinding cereals and pulses. They were made of hard, gritty rock or sandstone. The remains of saddle querns show signs of hard usage.

Curry stones: The type of quern in which the second stone was used as pounder, which eventually made a cavity in the base stone was called curry stones. This type was possibly used only for pounding herbs and spices for making curries.

Chert: Chert was a type of stone, generally cubical with no markings. It was used in the system of weight by the people of Harappan people.

QUESTIONS-

one marks questions

1.The first discovered Harappa site 2.One Harappan site in Haryana

3.The site where fire altars and ploughed field found

4.A specialised centre for shell making

5 The most recently discovered site Haryana 

6.The site where water reservoirs found

7.  One specialized centre for shell making

8.   The Important Harappan site from Gujarat

9.  The site where R.D Banerji conducted excavations

10   The major centre of bead making

11   One Harappan site now in Pakistan.

Answers

1.      Harappa

2.      Banwali

3.      Kalibangan

4.      Balakot

5.      Rakhi Garhi

6.      Dholavira

7.      Nageshwar

8.      Lothal

9.      Mohenjodaro

10.  Chanhudaro

11.  Kot Diji

1. How were the dead bodies disposed of in Harappan civilization?

Ans: - From the archaeological finds it is believed that –

i. The dead bodies were buried in the ground

ii. The dead body was left in the open for the animals and birds to eat its flesh.

Skeleton were buried in the ground

2 Mention two features of the Harappan civilization?

Ans. i) It was an urban civilization.

ii) It was primarily based on trade

iii) The people were peace loving

v) Had well planned cities

3. Give two features of the Harappan writing?

Or

In what way is the Harappan script unique?

Ans 1 It is not alphabetical. Has not yet not been deciphered

2 Probably written from right to left as wide gaps are seen on the right and

cramping on the left.

3 Writing found on copper tools, Jars, seals, terracotta, tablets etc.

4. Mention the names of two persons who discovered the Harappan civilization.

OR

Who contributed in discovering Harappan civilization?

Ans. i. Dayaram Sahni

II R D Banarjee

iii. Cunningham

IV John Marshall

v. Wheeler

vi. N.G.Mazumdar

5. How do you know about the lives of Harappan people?

Ans. On the basis of finds and remains like

a)Ruins of buildings

b) Pottery

c) Ornaments

d) Tools and seals

6. Name the ornaments found near the burial in Harappa.

Ans: - a) rings of shells. b) Beads c) Jasper

7. Write important features of great bath of Mohenjo-Daro.

Ans: - a) It was made of finely built burnt bricks.

 b) Great bath reflects credit on the engineering skill.

c) It measures 12m X 7m and is 3m deep

d) The great bath had efficient drainage to flush out dirty water.

8. Mention opinion of archaeologists about the existence of rulers in Harappan

Society.

Ans: - a) some archaeologists have opinion that they had no rulers and everybody

Enjoyed equal status.

b) Some suggest that there were several rulers.

c) Others argue that there was single state to maintain the uniformity in

Society.

4 Marks Questions:-

1. Write the salient features of Harappan Agriculture technologies?

OR

What type of evidence found in Harappan sites related to agriculture

technology?

Ans: - i. Representation on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull

Was known

ii. Oxen were used for ploughing.

iii. Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field of

kalibangan

iv. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other suggesting

That two different crops were grown together.

V. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was

Probably required for agriculture.

vi. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of shortughai in

Afghanistan.

2. Write the salient features of Mohenjo-Daro.

Or

“Mohenjo-Daro was a well planned Urban city” explain it.

Or

Write the salient feature of Harappan civilization.

Ans: - 1. A planned urban Centre: - Mohenjo-Daro was divided in two parts. First

One is Height part called citadel and second one is Lower part is called

Lower town.

2. Laying out drains.

3. Roads and streets.

4. Domestic architecture.

5. Great Bath.

 3. What was Cunningham‟s confusion on Harappan period? Explain it.

OR

On which basis Harappan civilization time period was divided by Cunningham.

Or

In real, was Cunningham didn‟t understand the time period of Harappan in his

whole life.

Ans: - i. The written word (text and inscriptions) as a guide to investigations. In

Fact Cunningham‟s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early

Historic (6th century BCE – 4th Century CE) and later period.

ii. He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited

The subcontinent between the 4th & 7th centuries CE to locate early

Settlement.

iii. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese

Pilgrims and was not known as an early historic city.

iv. Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganges valley. Given his

Specific focus, it is not surprising that he missed the significance of

Harappa.

V. A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted

The subject, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time frame

With which he was familiar.

2. Or

How Harappan civilization changed from Urban to rural civilization.

Or

How a well planned civilization of Harappa was decline.

Ans: - 1. Due to changes in climate

2. Deforestation.

3. Excessive floods

4. The shifting and/or drying up or rivers

5. Foreign attack.

6. To over use of the landscape.

2. „Was there a singular ruler in Harappan society‟ explain it

Or

Explain the ruling system of Harappan Society.

Ans: - i. Some archeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no

Rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status.

ii. Other feel there was no single ruler lout several, that Mohenjo-Daro had a

Separate rulers Harappa another and so forth.

iii. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in

Artefacts, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the establishment of

Settlements near sources of raw material.

iv. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be known as the „priest-

King‟. This is because archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian

History and its priest-king.

OTQ ( 1 MARKS )

Q1.Which of the following name is appropriate, Indus valley civilization or Harappan

Culture.

Ans: Harappan Culture.

Q2. Which was the first site of Indus valley civilization where this unique culture was

discovered?

Ans: Harappa.

Q3. Where was evidence of ploughed field found in Indus Valley Civilization?

Ans: Kalibangan.

Q4: Terracotta models of the plough have been found at which sites in Indus valley

Civilization?

Ans: 1. Cholistan

2. Banawali

Haryana

HISTORY

Q5. From which traces of canals have been found in Indus valley Civilization.

Ans: Shortughai

Q6. Where was water reserve found in Indus valley Civilization .

Ans : Dhaulavira

Q7. Name any two structures which were found in the Citadel?

Ans: 1. The warehouse -

2. The great bath -

Q8. In Mesopotamians texts Dilmun, Meluhha and Magan words are used for which

centres?

Ans : Dilmun for Bahrain

Meluhha for Harappa

Magan for Oman.

Q9. The longest signs containing inscription contains how many signs?

Ans : 26 Signs

Q10. Harappa Script was written from which side?

Ans : From Right to left.

Q11: Weights were usually made of which stone in Indus valley Civilization.

Ans: Chert.

Afghanistan

Gujarat

In Harappa

In Mohenjodaro

HISTORY

Q12. Weights were generally made in which form?

Ans: Cubical with No markings.

Q13.What was the type of the lower denomination of weights?

Ans: Binary (1,2,4,8,16, 32 upto 12,800)

Q14: what was the type of the higher denominations of weights?

Ans: Decimal System

Q15: Who was the first Director General of A. S. I. ?

Ans: Cunningham.

Q16: What was the time period of Cunningham’s main interest in history?

Ans: 600 B.C.E. to 400 C. E.

Q17: Who announced the discovery of a new civilization in the Indus valley?

Ans: John Marshall.

Q.18. Who has written “The story of India Archaeology”

Ans. S.N.Roy

Q.19. Who was the first professional archaeologist to work in India?

Ans. John Marshall

Q.20. What was the new technique that was followed by R.E.M. Wheeler?

Ans. To Follow the stratigraphy of the round rather than digging horizontal lines.

Q.21 How did the Harappans obtain red colour of carnelian?

Ans:-Harappans obtained red colour of carnelian by firing the

yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of production.

Q.22 How do we know about the social differences among the Harappans?

Ans:-By study of the structure of burials and things found from these burials. By

classifying artifacts into useful and luxurious things.

Q.23 What were the animals of Harappans civilization?

Ans:- Pet animals :- Cattle , Sheep , Goat , Buffalo , Pig - Wild animal: - Boar, Deer,

Ghariyal.

Q. 24 List the food items available to the people in Harappan civilization?

Ans:- Products taken from plants; Fish and flesh; wheat, millet, pulses, rice etc.

S. A (3 Marks)

Q.25 Our Knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization is poorer than that of other

civilizations, why?

Ans:-Because -

- We could not read the script of that age till now.

- Dependency on only archaeological sources .i.e. buildings, seal, beads etc.

- For other civilizations literary sources are available unlike Indus Valley

Civilization.

Q.26 List the raw material required for craft production in Indus Valley Civilization and

how these might have been obtained?

Ans:- - Stone -like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite.

- Metal - like- copper, bronze, gold.

- Shell , faience and terracotta

Method of procuring material for craft production-

(A)They established settlement near the source of material -eg Nageshwar,

Balakot

(B)They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of

Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold)

Q.27 What was the confusion in the mind of Cunningham while studying Harappan

Civilization?

Ans:-

- He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited India

between the fourth and seventh century.

- He thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga Valley.

Q.28 What were the differences in techniques adopted by Marshall and wheeler in

studying Indus Valley Civilization.

Ans:-

- Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly

throughout the mound ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Due to this

technique valuable information about the context of these finds was

irretrievably lost.

- Wheelers recognized that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the

mound rather than digging mechanically along uniform horizontal lines.

Q.29 What were the features of settlements of pre- Harappa period?

Ans:-

- They had no large buildings.

- There was a prevalence of agriculture and cattle rearing.

Some people were also engaged in sculpture.

- There was no well-planned network of roads and drainage

system.

Q.30. How you can say that the people of Mohenjodaro were concerned about their

privacy?

Ans:-

- On the basis of residential buildings & special structures.

- The main entrance of the houses was made in such a way that it did not give a

direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

- There were no windows in the walls along the ground level.

Q.31. Mention any four items found in the graves of the Harappans?

Ans:-Jewellary of both men and women ornaments consisting of three shell

rings, a jasper (Semi precious Stones) Beads and copper mirror.

Q.32. How you can say that there was a break between the early Harappan and the late

Harappan Civilization?

Ans:- - There is evidence of large scale burning at some places or sites.

- The abandonment of certain settlements.

- Some drastic change we can see in town planning, drainage system and other

patterns.

-

Q.33. Why is Harappan script considered an enigmatic script or mysterious script?

OR

What are the main characteristics of Harappan Script?

Ans:-

- Because it is yet to be deciphered. Its mystery has still not been solved yet.

- It was not alphabetical. It had too many signs; all the signs symbolized certain

things.

- The sign of this script were of the period 375 to 400.

- The script has been found on a variety of objects.

Q.34. Write a note on the agriculture technology of Harappans?

Ans:-

- The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains in various sites of

civilization. Archaeologists have found evidence of a ploughed field at seals

and terracotta sculpture indicates that the bull was known and oxen were used

for ploughing.

- Two different crops were grown together.

- Canals and wells were constructed for irrigation. Traces of canals have been

found in all the Harappan sites of Shortughai in Afghanistan; Water reservoirs

have been found in Dhaulavira.

Q.35. How can you say that the Harappan culture was an urban one?

Ans

- The cities were well planned into upper and lower town.

- The roads were straight and wide.

- The houses were made of burnt bricks and contained more than one

storey. Every house had a well and bathroom.

- The Drainage system was excellent with house drains emptying into street

drains.

- Existence of public buildings.

- Lothal had a dockyard and was an important trading Centre.

Q.36. Write a note on the drainage system of Harappa?

Ans:-

- The drainage was made of mortar lime and gypsum.

- They were covered with big bricks and stones which could be lifted easily

to clean the drain .

- Smaller drains from houses on both the sides were laid on the main

channel.

- Pits were provided for sewage for the houses.

Q.37. Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harppan

civilization?

Ans:-

- Some archaeologists say that Harappan society had no rulers and that

everybody enjoyed equal status.

- Others feel there were no single ruler but several.

- Under the guidance and supervision of the rulers, plans and layout of the

city were prepared.

- Big buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals, granaries etc were

constructed under the supervision of rulers.

- Roads, drains were also constructed and cleanliness was maintained

under the overall supervision of ruler.

- The ruler might have taken interest in promoting the farmer to increase

production and the craftsmen to promote different handicrafts

- He maintained and controlled extra ordinary uniformity of Harappa's

artefacts like - Seals, Weight and bricks.

- During foreign attack and natural disaster he used to play an active role by

providing security and food,

- He used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weight and

measurements.

Q 38- Write a short note on the seals of Indus valley people.

Ans:-

- More than 2000 seals have been found at the various sites.

- They are made up of various materials such as steatite, faience, ivory, pottery

etc.

- They are very informative regarding dress, ornaments, hair styles etc.

- By the seals we know about the religions, commercial activities, etc.

Q 39. What do you know about trade and commerce of Indus valley civilization?

Ans:-Internal Trade: - was advanced Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa were main trade Centre.

Heavy and small weight has been found at these sites. These are made up in the

multiple of two as 1:2:4:8:16 upto 12,800.

-There was strict control on weight and measure.

-International trade - They had trade relation with other countries such as Egypt, Oman.

-The trade was carried both by sea and land

-Probably the metals like gold, silver, Tin and copper and precious stones were

imported from the other countries,

Q 40- How did Harappan civilization come to an end?

Ans:-

- Some schools have tried to explain the important causes which led to

the abandonment of the mature Harappan sites by 1800 B.C. E.

Some of them are as follows:-

- By Floods - It is speculated that a sudden flood might have

submerged the various town and buried them under the thick layer of

mud.

- Due to the change in the course of Indus River.

- Climatic change - It is also possible that there was climate change

and drought took place due to deforestation.

- Earthquakes - It is also probable that the nature itself turned the whole

land upside down.

- Aryan Invasion - Some scholars say that Aryans were responsible.

Value Based Questions

Q 41:- What value do you attach to the work of Sir John Marshall in leaving India three

thousand years older than he had found her?

Ans: - He was the director general of Archaeological Survey of India

- By his effort it was proved that there existed a great civilization in India

which was contemporary of Mesopotamia.

- For this great - work we attach the value of thank fullness, indebtedness

Long Answer (8 Marks)

Q.42: How do archaeologists reconstruct the past?

Ans:- - Recovering artefacts through excavation.

- Classification of finds that finds are whether tools or weapons or

ornaments or both or something meant for ritual use.

- An understanding of the function of an artifact is often shaped by it

resemblance with present day things. Beads, pots are obvious examples.

- Archaeologists reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining

seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes

- Archaeologists often move from known to unknown that is from present to

past regarding the reconstruction of religious practices.

- Remains of crops or pits are studied to identify food.

- By observing the different layers of sites they try to find out different things

for the information of Socio-economic conditions, religious and cultural life

of past people.

- Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by

investigating the context in which it was found.

- Use of indirect evidence eg. for clothing they depend on indirect evidence

like description in sculpture